 | American Psychological Association | |
|---|---|---|
 | Usability Professionals Association | |
 | Human Factors & Ergonomics Society | |
Frequently Asked Questions
PurposeWe often get questions regarding our various disciplines. The purpose of this FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) is to answer some of these questions. The objective is to clarify terms and concepts that are frequently encountered and often misunderstood.
Our RoleUsernomics can assist your company in making your products easy to learn, easy to use, aesthetically pleasing, and marketable. Our User Interface Design and Usability Testing professionals design both hardware and software products. Their experience covers a wide range of products including web-based and application software, consumer products, communication systems, and vehicles such as automobiles and aircraft.
We can also assist your company to make your workplace safe, efficient, and in compliance. Our Ergonomics Engineers apply a rigorous and systematic technique to ensure a hazard-free and worker-safe environment. We evaluate, design, and train your people to create an ongoing active safety program in your company. Our experience covers a wide range of workplace environments including the office, manufacturing floor, warehouse, and vehicles.
As a service to our professional community, we are pleased to bring you a great starting place for locating information about each of our disciplines.
Scroll down or click on any of the following FAQ topics:
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There are several problems when trying to define and describe each discipline including: (a) the disciplines overlap each other in terms of their activities, (b) the terms are used differently in Europe and the U.S., (c) people differ on their use of the terms, (d) the popular use of the terms often differ from the technical usage, and (e) the terms are used differently in the software industry and the hardware industry (particularly usage between large-scale systems like aircraft or nuclear power plants and the computer industry).
Having said that, the responses below are an attempt to describe each discipline from our point of view.
The common historical roots of the disciplines can be traced back to the early 1900's work of Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). He was known for Time and Motion studies as a way to increase productivity. He argued that he was applying "scientific" method to practical management problems. Taylor is said to be the father of scientific management, method study and work measurement, and incentive payments systems that link work outputs directly to levels of reward. (Note that the effort here is to manipulate the worker to fit the job, rather than visa versa).
During the 1950"s to 1960's several new disciplines emerged to meet the needs of specific niches associated with man-machine interactions. For example, Engineering Psychology, Human Factors Engineering, Engineering Psychology, Cognitive Engineering, and Biomechanics,. Also, the Human Factors Journal in was published in the U.S. (that was journal title at that time) and the Ergonomics Journal was published in the UK. Both journals were intended to meet the needs of the emerging research and development in Human Factors. Note that it was called Human Factors in the U.S. and Ergonomics in the UK, but they referred to the same thing at that time.
With the advent of the computer age, (late 1960's to present) and the advent of the American's with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, more specialties were needed and new disciplines emerged. In the computer industry, such disciplines as: Human-computer Interface, User Interface Design, and Usability Engineer evolved. These disciplines are specifically focused on the interaction of humans with the computer. The focus was on making both hardware and software more usable. Similarly, in the workplace, Ergonomics took on new meaning to include, Physical Ergonomics, Anthropometry, Biomechanics, and Occupational Health & Safety Engineering. These disciplines were specifically focused on the physical or medical aspects of making the workplace efficient, safe, and physiologically matched to the individual. These disciplines are concerned with both designing the workplace to avoid human physical problems and intervening to ameliorate existing physical conditions.
Today, several specialties have emerged to take on specific meanings in the professional community, and somewhat vague meaning by consumers. Following are some short descriptions of many of these disciplines and their common usage (Note that there is overlap between both disciplines and there are differences in how people use these terms.)
In the U.S., Human Factors is often used as an overall term for many of the disciplines discussed here. It also known as Human Factors Engineering. A concise definition by Kantowitz and Sorkin (1983) is: "Human Factors is the discipline that tries to optimize the relationship between technology and the human."
A more inclusive definition that incorporates several disciplines is offered by Chapanis (1985): "Human factors discovers and applies information about human behavior, abilities, limitations, and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for productive, safe, comfortable, and effective human use." (Note that you can see where the overlap occurs between Human Factors and Ergonomics in this definition).
The term Human Factors is used as an overall term, but most often it is used to mean the design of hardware and software in order to increase usability, efficiency, performance, and acceptance by the user. We often think of it as the design of controls and displays for large systems such as: aircraft, space vehicles, automobiles, power plants, communications, and manufacturing plants.
Engineering Psychology is the research branch of psychology focusing on applications of psychological theory to the design of systems.
Many professionals have degrees in Engineering Psychology and either conduct research in what might be called Human Factors, or they apply the principles derived from Engineering Psychology to Human Factors. Therefore, Engineering Psychology might be thought of as a research discipline, while Human Factors is the resulting application of Engineering Psychology.
Also called Cognitive Engineering, Cognitive Psychology refers to the design of complex systems to conform to human cognitive strengths and avoid human cognitive weaknesses.
It is the psychological science that studies cognition - the mental processes that are hypothesized to underlie behavior. This covers a broad range of research domains that examines questions about the workings of memory, attention, perception, knowledge representation, reasoning, creativity and problem solving.
Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in two keys ways.
Cognitive Psychology might be thought of as related to Engineering Psychology with an emphasis on human thinking and processing of information. The objective is to conduct research and design systems to conform to the way human's process information.
Also known as Engineering Anthropometry, the term anthropometry comes from the Greek anthropos (man) and metrein (to measure). Anthropometry deals with the measurement of the dimensions and other physical characteristics of the human body such as volumes, centers of gravity, inertial properties, and masses of body segments. There are two primary types of body measurements: static and dynamic (functional). Engineering Anthropometry is concerned with the application of both types of data to the design of things people use. (Sanders & McCormick 1992).
Human Factors and Engineering Psychologists use anthropometric data when researching and designing systems. However, anthropometry is a discipline in itself, with professionals specializing specifically in that area.
Ergonomists also use anthropometric data extensively when researching, evaluating, and designing the workplace for safety, efficiency, and productivity.
In Europe, ergonomics is often used to mean Human Factors. In the U.S. ergonomics usually refers to the design and arrangement of equipment so that people will interact with the equipment in a healthy, safe, comfortable, and efficient manner. As related to computer equipment, ergonomics is concerned with such factors as the physical design of the keyboard, screens, related hardware, and the manner in which people interact with these hardware devices.
Ergonomics (from Greek ergon work and nomoi natural laws) is the study of designing objects to be better adapted to the shape of the human body and/or to correct the user's posture. Common examples include: chairs designed to prevent the user from sitting in positions that may have a detrimental effect on the spine, the ergonomic desk which offers an adjustable keyboard tray, a main desktop of variable height, and other elements which can be changed by the user.
Ergonomics also helps with the design of alternative computer input devices for people who want to avoid repetitive strain injury or carpal tunnel syndrome. A normal computer keyboard tends to force users to keep their hands together and hunch their shoulders. To prevent the injuries, or to give relief to people who already have symptoms, special split keyboards, curved keyboards, not-really-keyboards keyboards, and other alternative input devices exist. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
So ergonomics in the U.S. typically refers to Physical Ergonomics where the objective is to create a safe and healthy workplace. Ergonomics is focused on Occupational Health and Safety in its attempt to intervene, prevent, and/or treat medical conditions such as: Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, Repetitive Strain Injury, and Cumulative Trauma Disorder. An underlying discipline for physical ergonomics is the study of biomechanics.
Biomechanics in its broadest sense is the study of the mechanics and other physical aspects of living organisms and their parts. Some simple examples of biomechanics include the investigation of the forces that act on limbs, the aerodynamics of bird and insect flight, the hydrodynamics of swimming in fish and locomotion in general across all forms of life, from individual cells to whole organisms. Of course, the focus here is biomechanics as related to the human organism.
Closely related to Biomechanics is Kinesiology which has been traditionally defined as the study of human movement from the point of view of physical sciences (Luttgens & Hamilton, 1997). It has two main areas: anatomical kinesiology and mechanical kinesiology. The former deals with the mechanical aspects of the human body, while the latter deals with the mechanical aspects of the human motion.
In essence, kinesiology is very similar to biomechanics as long as the main area of application is the human. So both terms can be used interchangeably. Today, people tend to use the term kinesiology with a broader meaning: the study of human movement. They have identified several additional areas such as psychological kinesiology, physiological kinesiology, etc. (Ball State University).
We often refer to Physical Ergonomics as Biomechanics because professionals working in the field are often trained in Biomechanics. We also differentiate Human Factors as having to do with "design" while Ergonomics in the U.S. focuses on Biomechanics.
User Interface Design refers to the aspects of hardware or software which can be seen (or heard or otherwise perceived) by the human user, and the commands and mechanisms the user uses to control its operation and input data. (based on The Dictionary of Computing).
While User Interface Design is often used for computer systems, it is the part of any system exposed to a user. For example, in an automobile the user interface consists of the steering wheel, the accelerator pedal, the brake pedal, the various instruments that the user requires, etc. In a computer system, the user typically interacts with an operating system or with application software such as a spreadsheet or a word processor. With systems, the user interacts using menus, icons, keystrokes, mouse clicks, and similar capabilities.
Recently, as systems have become increasingly complex and more difficult to control, much thought has been given to the design of interfaces that enable a user to operate the system naturally. This increases its usability by allowing the user to form a mental model of the system. The term user friendliness (or user centered or user centric design) has been coined as a measure of how well the user interface fulfills this goal. (based on Wikipedia).
User Interface design is closely related to Engineering Psychology and Human Factors. We generally use the term User Interface Design to refer to the design of displays and controls in an effort to make them more usable, user friendly, or user centered.
Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the study of interaction between people (users) and computers. It is an interdisciplinary field, relating computer science, psychology, cognitive science, human factors, ergonomics, sociology, library and information science, artificial intelligence, and other fields. Interaction between users and computers occurs at the user interface (or simply interface), which includes both hardware (i.e. input and output devices) and software (e.g. determining which information, and how information is presented to the user on a screen). (based on Wikipedia).
Generally, HCI is the same as User Interface Design when applied to computers. The terms are often used interchangeably when working on computer systems and applications.
People generally do not associate Instructional Design and Documentation when thinking of Human Factors, Ergonomics, and User Interface Design. But almost every time you design a product, you need to train the user in some way. This can include online help, online tutorials, seminars, quick start guides, technical specifications for repair, etc. A new product always benefits from the disciplines of Instructional Design and Documentation.
The discipline of Instructional Design permits efficient and effective training for new users. The objective is often twofold: the get the new user started fast and correctly, or to permit fast access to reference material. This is a critical component of any new design. If the user is not comfortable and able to correctly use the new product, they will feel that the product is not acceptable. Acceptance by the user is critical to the success of the product from both a usability and marketability point of view.
Some of our people have advanced degrees in both Engineering Psychology and Instructional Psychology for this reason. They have had the experience of designing products and not being able to get people to use them efficiently, effectively, or fast enough. So while we try to design products with intuitive interfaces that we say does not need training, we always supply some form of instructional material to ensure that "no one gets left behind."
You can learn more about Technical Training and Technical Documentation on this site.
All of the disciplines discussed here generally require an M.S. or Ph.D. in their respective fields. There is overlap between the disciplines and people may get their degrees in more than one field. While some people do applied work with a B.S. plus additional seminars and training programs, most of them have the advanced degrees.
A good list of schools offering advanced degrees can be seen on our Educational Programs page. An example of the type of courses and instruction for a degree in Human-Computer Interaction can be seen at ACM SIGCHI.
Yes, sometimes a person may have a degree in a different discipline and would like to focus on one of those disciplines discussed here. There are seminars and training courses available for this purpose.
A good set of links to seminars and training in Ergonomics can be found at the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA).
An online course in Human-Computer Interaction is available on the Do-it-Yourself Electronic Lectures (DIYEL) site
Another online educational opportunity for HCI is the SHORE: Student HCI Online Research Experiments at the University of Maryland.
Yes, there are a variety of certifications but the recognized organization that provides professional certification is the Board of Certified Professional Ergonomists BCPE.
People focus on Usability when thinking of HCI or User Interface Design. And, they think of the outcome as being a well designed, user centered, efficient, and effective product. Of course, that is a correct focus. But there is another outcome that is often overlooked.
When a product benefits from good usability, users are likely to accept, use, recommend, and buy that product. So good usability results in better marketability and sales.
We have coined the phrase Ergonomics Marketing to refer to designing products to increase marketability. Today, there are companies that focus on usability with the primary purpose of achieving greater marketability. This can be readily seen in the automotive, home appliance, and technology industries.
A discussion of this topic can be seen on our Ergonomics Marketing page.
Yes, there are standards for each discipline. You can see a good list of standards on this site under Standards.
Yes, there is a large number of journals and magazines for each discipline. A good starting place can be seen on this site under Journals.
Yes, there is a large number of books for each discipline. A large listing of books can be seen on this site under Books.
Yes, there are both national and local organizations for each discipline. You can see a list of them on this site under Organizations.
Yes, there is a list of both newsletters and newsgroups on this site under Online Forums.
You can see all the current news for ergonomics and human factors on this site under Ergonomics News.
You can see a listing of vendors of ergonomic products on this site under Ergonomic Products.
Usernomics offers consulting services in each of the disciplines discussed. You can learn more about our services under the Consulting Navigation Links starting at Consulting Services.
